We shall now examine the details of the punishment that the Almighty administered to the Kuffar in the era of Muhammad (sws) in the overall perspective of the various phases of his preaching mission.
i. The Propagation Phase
In the fortieth year of his life,
Muhammad (sws) was summoned by the Almighty to serve Him. Makkah at the
time was the social and cultural centre of Arabia. It was its central city.
So, in accordance with the Almighty’s established practice of sending a
Messenger to the central city of a land, Muhammad (sws) was called upon
to begin his endeavour in this city:
In Makkah, where Muhammad (sws) spent about thirteen years of his preaching endeavour, his addressees were basically the Idolaters – the descendants of the Prophet’s great ancestor: the Prophet Isma‘il (sws). However, the People of the Book (the Jews and the Christians) were also addressed at various instances. Besides these two distinct pockets of opponents, there were the Munafiqun (the Hypocrites) of whom only a few were in Makkah and who emerged as a sizeable faction in Madinah as the Islamic message started to gain momentum.Thus have We sent by inspiration to you an Arabic Qur’an that you may warn the Mother of Cities and all around her; – and warn [them] of the Day of Assembly of which there is no doubt [when] some will be in the Garden, and some in the Blazing Fire. (42:7)
Muhammad (sws) bore witness to the basic truths before all these three groups and refuted their evil beliefs. As pointed out earlier, in the terminology of the Qur’an, this is called Shahadah. He revived various Abrahamic practices and rituals, cleansing them of various interpolations added by the polytheists, and delineating the basic truths of monotheism and accountability in the Hereafter on the basis of the Shari‘ah brought by him.
The real debate with the Idolaters concerned their polytheistic beliefs and religious innovations (Bid‘at). They were repeatedly asked to give up their religion of Idolatry since it had no grounds. It was only the Almighty who could have told them that He had associated with Him certain other deities. Without the sanction of the Almighty, they had no means to know about such details for themselves. Consequently, when they claimed that polytheism was revealed to them by the Almighty Himself, the Qur’an called this a vicious lie:
These are nothing but names which you have devised – you and your fathers – for which Allah has sent down no authority [whatsoever]. They follow nothing but conjecture and what their own souls desire! – even though there has already come to them guidance from their Lord! (53:23)
It is precisely for this reason that their denial of monotheism amounted to a deliberate rejection of the message of Muhammad (sws), as a result of which they would have to face the punishment of Hell in the Hereafter:Soon shall We cast terror into the hearts of those who have denied [the basic truths] because they joined companions with Allah for which He had sent no authority; their abode will be the Fire; and evil is the home of the wrongdoers! (3:151)
Similarly, the People of the Book were asked to desist from their attitude of hostility and antagonism and to honour the covenant they had made of professing belief in the final Messenger – someone whose name was mentioned in their very books:Nay there came to you My signs and you rejected them and showed haughtiness and as a result became from among the disbelievers. On the Day of Judgement you will see that faces of those who told lies against God will turn black. Is not in Hell an abode for the haughty. (39:59-60)
Fulfill the Covenant of Allah when you have entered into it, and break not your oaths after you have confirmed them: indeed you have made Allah your witness; for Allah knows all that you do. And be not like a woman who breaks into untwisted strands the yarn she has spun after it has become strong. Nor take your oaths to practice deception between yourselves, lest one party should be more numerous than another: for Allah will test you by this; and on the Day of Judgement He will certainly make clear to you [the truth of] that wherein you disagree. (16:91-2)
Like the Idolaters also, their real crime, according to the Qur’an, was deliberate denial:He [-- the Almighty --] said: ‘With My Punishment I visit whom I will; but My Mercy extends to all things. That [mercy] I shall ordain for those who do right, and practice regular charity, and those who believe in Our Signs – Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find mentioned in their own [Scriptures] in the Torah and in the Injil – for he commands them what is just and forbids them what is evil; he allows them as lawful what is good [and pure] and prohibits them from what is bad [and impure]; he releases them from their heavy burdens and from the yokes that were upon them. So those who believe in him, honour him, help him, and follow the Light which is sent down with him – it is they who shall prosper. (7:156-7)
When there came to them that which they recognized, they disbelieved in it. So let the curse of Allah be on the disbelievers. (2:89)
Many of the people of the Book wish that if they could turn you away as disbelievers after you have believed out of envy from their own selves even after the truth has become manifest to them. (2:109)
Those to whom We have given the Book recognize him [--Muhammad—] as they recognize their sons. But verily, a party of them conceal the truth while they know it. (2:146)
Initially, Muhammad (sws) could muster very little support from his tribe in favour of his message. Most people of Makkah rejected his call and only a few youth of the city accepted it. The hostility shown by the chiefs of Makkah was so severe that most people reckoned that it would only be a matter of days before this newly founded faith would reach a disastrous end. Muhammad (sws) and his Companions (rta) were put through severe physical torture and mental affliction. Such was the extent of the persecution suffered by the Prophet (sws) that for many years he had to confine his endeavour to his near relatives. However, after many years of persistent struggle, when it became evident that the people of Makkah were denying the Prophet (sws) due to sheer obstinacy, the Almighty asked him to dissociate himself from these people.How shall Allah guide a people who disbelieved after their belief and after they bore witness that the Messenger [Muhammad (sws)] is a truth and after clear proofs had come unto them? And Allah guides not the people who are wrong-doers. (3:86)
ii. The Acquittal Phase
After thirteen long years of calling
people to the truth, the Almighty told Muhammad (sws) that the basic truths
had been unveiled to the Idolaters of Makkah. They had knowingly
denied these and therefore were now prone to punishment. In the meantime,
the city of Madinah had come under the influence of the Divine message
and its chiefs readily accepted Islam. Muhammad (sws) was directed to migrate
to Madinah and leave his people. Surah Kafirun records this
declaration of acquittal in the following words:
This is perhaps the only instance in the Qur’an in which the disbelievers have been directly addressed in such words11. These words are not meant to condemn or chide them; they actually convey their true behaviour. After thirteen long years of propagation and exhortation, the leaders of the Quraysh had refused the calls of sense and reason. Their denial was based on nothing but stubbornness in spite of the fact that the truth had been revealed to them in its purest form. Consequently, Muhammad (sws) at this stage addressed them by a name which aptly described their deeds, and on divine bidding, departed from them. The last verse of the surah, it must be appreciated, is not an expression of tolerance; it expresses renunciation on the part of the Prophet (sws) and a warning to the Kuffar that they must now get ready to face the consequences of their obdurate denial.Declare you [O Prophet!]: O Kuffar! I shall worship not that which you worship. Nor will you ever worship [alone] that which I worship. Nor ever before this was I prepared to worship that which you worshipped. Nor were you ever prepared to worship that which I have been worshipping. [So, now] to you your religion and to me mine. (109:1-6)
As far as the People of the Book were concerned, the migration did not end the propagation phase for them since many of them were based in Madinah. They were given more time to contemplate the consequences of denial until at a certain point in time in Madinah, their time for accepting faith expired too. In other words, the Shahadah (bearing witness to the truth) reached its completion for them in the early Madinan period after which Judgement was pronounced upon them together with the Hypocrites and the Idolaters of Arabia.
iii. The Judgement Phase
Following are the details of the Judgement
when it finally took place:
a. The Reward
After Muhammad (sws) migrated to Madinah,
the people of Arabia on whom the truth had already been unveiled were given
a further chance to contemplate upon the consequences of their denial.
Here in Madinah, the believers were prepared to launch a final assault
on the Kuffar. They were told that their opponents would never be
able to triumph over them:
They are given glad tidings of success in the following words:If the Kuffar should fight you, they would certainly turn their backs; then would they find neither protector nor helper. Such has been the practice approved of God already in the past: no change will you find in the practice approved of God. (48:22-3)
The sincere among them who were guilty of some blemishes were forgiven after some punishment:God has promised to those among you who professed belief and did righteous deeds that He will of surety grant you political authority in this land as He granted it to those before them; that He will establish their religion – the one which He has chosen for them; and that He will change [their state] after the fear in which they [lived] to one of security and peace: ‘They will worship Me [alone] and not associate anyone with Me’. If any do reject faith after this, they are rebellious and wicked. (24:55)
The weak among them were told that if they repented and mended their ways and remained steadfast, then hopefully the Almighty would also forgive them:[He turned in mercy also] to the three whose matter was deferred to such a degree that the earth seemed constrained to them for all its spaciousness, and their souls seemed straitened to them – and they perceived that there is no fleeing from Allah but to Him. Then, He turned to them that they might repent: for Allah is Oft-Returning, Most Merciful. (9:118)
b. The PunishmentAnd others who have acknowledged their wrong-doings: they have mixed an act that was good with another that was evil. Perhaps, God will turn unto them [in mercy]: for God is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful. (9:102)
In the Judgement phase, the humiliation of the Disbelievers took place in two phases. Initially, all active adversaries were put to death whether they belonged to the Idolaters of Arabia or the People of the Book. Some of the Jews killed were only done so after they had broken the pacts which had guaranteed them security and protection. The following verse mentions this first phase:
Though this verse addresses only the Idolaters, its last words ‘and [in the land of Arabia] Allah’s religion reigns supreme’, shows that followers of all other religions were also to be subdued until the religion of Islam reigned supreme in the Arabian peninsula.Keep fighting against them until persecution does not remain and [in the land of Arabia] Allah’s religion reigns supreme. (2:192)
In the next phase, when the believers had been prepared for a final onslaught against the Kuffar, who had been given ample time to contemplate on the consequences of their denial, the stage was set to pronounce the final judgement against the addressees of Muhammad (sws). Surah Tawbah describes in detail the events which took place in the final phase regarding the three major opponents: the Idolaters, the People of the Book and the Hypocrites. The surah is divided into three sections. In the first, the Idolaters of Arabia; in the second, the People of the Book, and, in the third, the Hypocrites are dealt with.
1. For the Idolaters
Initially, the Idolaters were given
an ultimatum of four months after which their humiliation would start:
Tribes who had honoured their contracts were provided immunity during the period of the contract. However, once the contract period ended, they would also be treated similarly:This is a declaration of acquittal from Allah and His Messenger from these Idolaters with whom you had made contracts. So move about in the land for four months but you should know that you are not beyond the grasp of Allah and Allah shall indeed humiliate those who reject Him. (9:1-2)
Later, this announcement was repeated for those people among these Idolaters who had not accepted faith until the day of Hajj-i-Akbar (9th Hijra). They were given a final extension by a proclamation made in the field of ‘Arafat on that day. According to the proclamation, this final extension would end with the last day of the month of Muharram. Before this period, they had to accept faith and demonstrate this acceptance by offering prayers and paying Zakah; otherwise they would face execution at the end of that period. The Qur’an says:But this action shall not be taken against those Idolaters with whom you have entered into alliance and who did not breach the contract nor aided anyone against you. So fulfil your engagements with them to the end of their term: for Allah loves the pious. (9:4)
However, if a person asked for asylum to understand the teachings of Islam, he was to be given this asylum and no action was to be taken against him until this period was over.When the forbidden months are over, slay the Idolaters wherever you find them. Seize them, surround them and everywhere lie in ambush for them. But if they repent from their wrong beliefs and establish the prayer and pay Zakah, then spare their lives. God is Oft-Forgiving and Ever Merciful. (9:5)
2. For the People of the BookIf anyone among the Idolaters asks you for asylum, grant it to him so that he may hear the Word of Allah and then escort him to where he can be secure. That is because they are men without knowledge. (9:6)
After the Idolaters, the fate of the People of the Book is stated in Surah Tawbah. Since it had become evident that their denial too was based on sheer obstinacy, Muslims were asked to fight them into subjugation unless they accepted the superiority of the Muslims by paying Jizyah:
A final charge sheet of their crimes was presented to them in the following words:Fight those who believe not in Allah or the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which has been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizyah with willing submission and are subdued. (9:29)
It has been shown in the previous sections that the difference in punishment between the Idolaters and the People of the Book seems to be based on the fact that while the former ascribed to polytheism, the latter were basically monotheists.The Jews [of Arabia] call ‘Uzayr the son of God, and the Christians call Christ the son of God. That is a saying from their mouth; [In this] they but imitate what the Disbelievers of old used to say. Allah’s curse be on them: how they are deluded away from the Truth. They take their priests and their anchorites to be their lords in derogation of Allah, and [they take as their Lord] Christ, the son of Mary; yet they were commanded to worship but One God: there is no god but He. Praise and glory to Him: [far is He] from having the partners they associate [with Him]. (9:30-1)
3. For the Hypocrites
In the third section of Surah Tawbah,
the Hypocrites are taken to task and told that if they do not desist from
this behaviour, they would meet their fate also:
They swear by Allah that they said nothing [evil], but indeed they uttered blasphemy, and they did it after accepting Islam; and they meditated a plot which they were unable to carry out: this revenge of theirs was only because of the blessings with which Allah and His Messenger had enriched the Muslims. If they repent, it will be best for them; but if they turn back [to their evil ways], Allah will punish them with a grievous penalty in this life and in the Hereafter: they shall have none on earth to protect or help them. (9:74)
I now conclude this section by presenting Ghamidi’s thesis12 regarding the continuation of Muhammad’s (sws) mission by his immediate Companions (rta) and why this mission was divinely terminated with the departure of these immediate Companions (rta). Muhammad (sws) directly bore witness to the truth before his Companions (rta) as a group. Moral concepts were personified in these Companions (rta) in the ultimate degree. They were a group of noble souls who graced this world and became embodiments of moral ideals in their collective capacity. They became the representatives of the truth and were called the ‘best community’ by the Almighty Himself:There are Hypocrites among the desert Arabs round you as well as among the Madinah folk: they are obstinate in hypocrisy: you do not know them: We know them: twice shall We punish them: and in addition shall they be sent to a grievous penalty. (9:101)
None other than the Almighty Himself selected these noble Companions (rta) to carry on this task of Shahadah ‘ala al-Nas (bearing witness to the truth before other nations of their times):You are the best of peoples evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and truly believing in God. (3:110)
Such was the nature of their endeavour that the Almighty announced that He was pleased with them:He has chosen you, and has imposed no difficulties on you in religion; it is the religion of your father Abraham. It is He Who has named you Muslims, both before and in this [Qur’an]: [He chose you so that] the Messenger may be a witness [of this religion] to you, and you be witnesses of this religion to non-Muslims [of your times]. (22:78)
The Qur’an uses the words Ummat-i-Wasat (the intermediate community) for the Companions (rta).Allah is well pleased with them and they with Him. (98:8)
This use is very meaningful since they stood between Muhammad (sws) and the rest of the world of their times who were able to observe the whole process of the Companions’ (rta) Shahadah (bearing witness to the truth). Since these Companions (rta) were called Shuhada ‘ala al-Nas (witnesses to the truth before other peoples) in this verse and since, as a result, the truth had become personified in their collective capacity, they too had the authority to punish those who knowingly denied the truth.Thus have We made of you an intermediate group so that you be witnesses [of this religion] over the nations, and the Rasul be such a witness over you. (2:143)
Once Muhammad (sws) had completed his Shahadah, his Companions (rta) stood as an extension to this Shahadah. Muhammad (sws) himself initiated their task by writing letters to the various non-Muslim states of the world. Letters were written to the emperors of Abyssinia, Egypt, Persia, Rome, Bahrain, Yamamah, Damascus and Amman. These states were required to submit to Muslim authority by paying Jizyah if they wanted to remain on their religions or face the consequences of war. The countries where the Companions (rta) were to go were, as a result, demarcated by these letters. In other words, the Prophet Muhammad (sws) himself informed his Companions (rta) about the areas and territories upon which the Shahadah would be completed once these Companions (rta) reached them, and which as result were to be subdued if they do not pay Jizyah.
In the Old Testament also, the areas of Canaan, on which the Israelites13 were to wage war after the Prophet Moses (sws) were, on similar grounds, divinely demarcated:
The Lord said to Moses, ‘Command the Israelites and say to them: When you enter Canaan, the land that will be allotted to you as an inheritance will have these boundaries: Your southern side will include some of the Desert of Zinalong the border of Edom. On the east, your southern boundary will start form the end of the Salt Sea, cross south of Scorpion Pass, continue on to Zin and go south of Kadesh Barnea. Then it will go to Hazar Addar and over to Azmon, where it will turn, join the Wadi of Egypt and end at the Sea. Your western boundary will be the coast of the Great Sea. This will be your boundary on the west. For your northern boundary, run a line from the Great Sea to Mount Hor and from Mount Hor to Lebo Hamath. Then the boundary will go to Zedad, continue to Ziphron and end at Hazar Enan. This will be your boundary on the north. For your eastern boundary, run a line from Hazar Enan to Shepham. The boundary will go down from Shepham to Riblah on the east side of Ain and continue along the slopes east of the Sea of Kinnereth. Then the boundary will go down along the Jordan and end at the Salt Sea. This will be your land, with its boundaries on every side.’ (Numbers, 34:1-12)However, after the departure of the Companions (rta) of Muhammad (sws), since no one enjoys the status of Shuhada ‘ala al-Nas (witnesses to the truth before other peoples), the right to punish people for deliberately denying the truth can no longer be exercised.
In other words, after Muhammad (sws) and his Companions (rta), it cannot be ascertained whether the basic truths have been revealed in their ultimate form nor can it be determined whether those who have denied have done so in spite of being convinced about them; consequently, Muslims after them cannot wage war to punish people for not accepting Islam. They must keep on presenting Islam to non-Muslims, who also, as a result of the above mentioned premise, cannot be pinpointed as the Kuffar (Disbelievers).